Whose landWolastoqiyik and Mi'gmaq territories

Bas-Saint-Laurent (St. Lawrence south shore)

CanadaLower St Lawrence south shore and the Notre-Dame Mountains

Cold-maritime south shore of the St. Lawrence estuary and the Appalachian foothills, on Wolastoqiyik and Mi'gmaq territory and in French. An older population, growing again since 2019, with a welcome agent in each of its eight MRCs: a place to be received by, through farm succession and village life, before it is a place to arrive in.

Land standing · qualitative, never scored

Wolastokuk, Gespe'gewa'gi and Nionwentsïo meet here, and no claim is settled. West of the Métis watershed lies Wolastokuk, the ancestral territory of the Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet) Wahsipekuk First Nation, whose small reserve is at Cacouna and which filed a comprehensive land claim with Canada and Québec in 2006. East and south are the Mi'gmaq of Gespe'gewa'gi (Listuguj, Gesgapegiag, Gespeg), who call their territory ancestral and unceded and whose own river-systems page names the Matapédia among the rivers of Gespe'gewa'gi. The Huron-Wendat Nation claims a territory, Nionwentsïo, that reaches east to beyond Rivière-du-Loup and takes in the Côte-du-Sud, Kamouraska and part of Témiscouata, on the strength of the 1760 treaty, and overlaps Wolastokuk. The Peace and Friendship Treaties the Wolastoqiyik and Mi'gmaq signed involved no surrender of land, and Canada's 2022 consultation map (illustrative, not definitive) shows their asserted territory running the whole south shore

Sources for this row (1)
TenureQuébec civil-law freehold with notarial deeds, under a farmland regime that decides most of what a buyer may do. In the CPTAQ agricultural zone, non-farm use, subdivision or a partial sale needs the Commission's authorisation, and a house is allowed only in listed cases (a vacant holding of 100 ha or more, a qualifying producer, a recognised acquired right or sector). Under Bill 86 (2025), buying 4 ha or more of farmland needs authorisation if the buyer is an investment fund, or if the land lies within 1,000 m of an urbanisation perimeter in an MRC the Act's interim list covers and the buyer is not a registered farm; of the region's eight MRCs, only Rimouski-Neigette and Rivière-du-Loup are on that interim list, and a government decree may extend it. Anyone who is not a Canadian citizen or permanent resident, or has not lived in Québec 1,095 of the last 48 months, is a non-resident and needs authorisation for 4 ha or more of farmland, granted to a person who intends to settle on condition of living in Québec 1,095 days in the next 48 months and being a citizen or permanent resident by the end of it. Public forest is the other tenure, and it is where the nations' claims and agreements are live
Sources for this row (1)
  • Bill 86 (2025) bars investment funds and buyers who are not a registered agricultural operation from acquiring farm land within 1,000 metres of an urbanisation perimeter without the commission's authorisation, and lets the Government lower the four-hectare non-resident threshold by regulation. Bill 86 (SQ 2025, c. 5), official English text (opens in a new tab)
Arriving in good faithArrive as a resident, not a buyer. The regional collective runs a free welcome service, with a team in each of the eight MRCs, and Place aux jeunes serves ages 18 to 35, immigrant workers with a valid permit included; the same page lists resources for people 36 and over. Onto working farms open ARTERRE (matching aspiring farmers with owners, two agents covering all eight MRCs), the Germoir farm incubator and the farm-transfer help of the regional food table. In its first year (2018-19) ARTERRE recorded 150 sign-ups and one transfer, a rental, and about half the would-be buyers came from outside the region. Place aux jeunes is a youth programme and the pages opened publish no route for a group, so a family or group arrival is a fit limit to ask about, not assume
Sources for this row (2)
What it asksLearn French before you land: it is the official language of Québec and the normal language of work. Go to the nations before you go to the land: ask the Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk about Wolastokuk and the Mi'gmawei Mawiomi about Gespe'gewa'gi, and keep to farm succession and service roles inside villages. Where arriving would mean a claim on Crown land, including the public land where Parke is closed to non-Indigenous hunters, the honest answer is not there. Not there either for arriving without French, or for treating Gaspésie, a separate region with its own communities, as part of this one

Where the answer is not here

  • Arriving to buy land on the south shore as though a treaty of cession had been made: Canada's own account says the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed with the Mi'kmaq and the Maliseet did not involve First Nations surrendering rights to the lands and resources they had used and occupied.

Basis: Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada: Peace and Friendship Treaties (opens in a new tab)

First conversations

Public bodies and protocols to read first. Pointers, not introductions.

Host nation or community

Land-access or welcome programme

These are pointers to public bodies. None of them has agreed to be contacted, and none is a person. Read first; ask how they want to be approached; never assume.

Source: Loi sur l'acquisition de terres agricoles par des non-résidents (RLRQ c. A-4.1), art. 2, 8 and 15.2; Québec, SQ 2025, c. 5 (Bill 86), s. 79.0.6, s. 105.5 and Schedule B

Assembled from public sources and checked on 2026-10-05. No nation or community named here has reviewed this entry.

consent of the people of this place

Left blank. The tool cannot sign it; only the people of this place can.

How to arrive in Bas-Saint-Laurent (St. Lawrence south shore)

Where arriving in a place would harm the community already there, the honest answer is not to go.

Every region in this tool is already someone’s home.

What living here asks of you

Bas-Saint-Laurent asks you to arrive in French, through a farm or a village that is already here. The free welcome teams in all eight MRCs are the first door; Place aux jeunes serves ages 18 to 35, so a family or a group should ask first. Land is the slow door: no current regional price could be verified (Québec farmland values rose 4.8 percent in 2025), and financing a transfer was named a persistent difficulty when ARTERRE launched. A non-resident who means to settle can be authorised to buy 4 ha or more of farmland on condition of living in Québec 1,095 days within four years and being a citizen or permanent resident by the end of it. Under it all is ground that three nations still hold open, the Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk, the Mi'gmaq of Gespe'gewa'gi and the Huron-Wendat, and a forest under spruce budworm pressure: the affected area grew from 844,004 to 1,065,561 ha in 2025, though defoliation is not the same as tree death.

Source: Collectif régional de développement du Bas-Saint-Laurent, Accueil et intégration; Loi sur l'acquisition de terres agricoles par des non-résidents (RLRQ c. A-4.1), arts. 2 and 15.2 (opens in a new tab)

Place · around the reference point, 100 km

Lower St Lawrence south shore and the Notre-Dame Mountains

Where it sits
In the New England-Acadian forests, and partly the Eastern Canadian forests.
Where the water goes
Rimouski, Mitis and Trois-Pistoles to the estuary; Saint John (Madawaska) inland. Drains to St Lawrence estuary and Bay of Fundy. The region straddles a drainage divide.

Ecoregions: RESOLVE Ecoregions 2017 (CC BY 4.0), computed within 100 km of the region's reference point, not its footprint. Watershed named from the region dossier and checked against Natural Earth rivers.

A descriptive label written for this tool. The names of peoples and places belong under Whose land.

The way in · qualitative · not legal advice

What lawful entry involves, in order

Who may hold
A person who does not reside in Québec needs the authorization of the Commission de protection du territoire agricole du Québec (CPTAQ) to acquire farm land of four hectares or more; the Government may lower that threshold by regulation. Bill 86 (2025, chapter 5) widened the net: it covers acquiring shares in a corporation one of whose assets is farm land, not only one whose principal asset is farm land, and it sets separate authorization grounds for investment funds, for buyers who will not register a farm operation within 1,000 metres of an urbanization perimeter, and for holdings above a cap to be set by regulation. Bill 86, SQ 2025, c. 5, An Act to ensure the long-term preservation and vitality of agricultural land, ss. 1, 63 (new s. 79.0.6) and explanatory notes (Publications du Québec)
First claim
  • The CPTAQ must authorise before the following acquisitions of farm land: by a non-resident of four hectares or more; by an investment fund (in force from 5 December 2024); by a buyer that is not a registered agricultural operation where the land is within 1,000 metres of an urbanization perimeter in a metropolitan community or an MRC in the groups set by decree (from 5 December 2024); and, once a regulation sets it, by a buyer whose total holdings would exceed the regulated area (Bill 86, new s. 79.0.6 and s. 114).
  • Until the first decree under s. 79.0.5, the 1,000-metre ground applies to the municipalities in groups A to D of Schedule B (s. 105.5). In this region Rimouski-Neigette and Rivière-du-Loup are in group D; La Mitis, Kamouraska, Témiscouata, Les Basques, La Matanie and La Matapédia are in group F, which that interim rule does not cover.
Direction
Bill 86 was assented to on 25 March 2025 and, for its first two authorization grounds and the interim Schedule B rule, takes effect as of 5 December 2024. The third ground and the holding cap come into force only with the first regulation under it, and no decree under s. 79.0.5 or cap regulation was found, so the interim group lists are the rule in the text opened.tightening · as of 2026
  1. Start with the region's welcome network, not a parcel. The regional welcome page names a Place aux jeunes agent in each of the 8 MRCs for people aged 18 to 35 (immigrants with a valid work permit included), resources for people aged 36 and over, and personalised support for immigrants, with an organisation named for each MRC. It does not mention families, groups or farm succession, and Place aux jeunes' own site says its service is for the 18-35s, while its exploratory stays can be taken as a family or alone.
    Who decides: The organisation for the MRC concerned (Place aux jeunes, the 36-and-over service, the immigrant welcome service)Bas-Saint-Laurent, Accueil et intégration; Place aux jeunes en région
  2. If farming is the aim, register with ARTERRE, the matching service that accompanies and pairs aspiring farmers with landowners who wish to transfer or lease a farm; the Bas-Saint-Laurent is a participating region.
    Who decides: ARTERRE agent for the MRCARTERRE, Régions participantes: Bas-Saint-Laurent
  3. Before buying farm land, work out which CPTAQ ground could apply: non-residency and four hectares or more; investment fund; or, in Rimouski-Neigette and Rivière-du-Loup, a buyer who will not register a farm operation within 1,000 metres of an urbanization perimeter. A buyer who declares that the land will be part of an agricultural operation registered in their name within the year after registration in the land register is granted authorization under the second ground.
    Who decides: CPTAQ; the notaryDuration: The farm land must be part of a registered agricultural operation in the buyer's name in the year following registration of the acquisition in the land register Bill 86, new s. 79.0.12Bill 86, new ss. 79.0.6 and 79.0.12; s. 105.5 and Schedule B
  4. Learn whose land it is and meet the Nations before acting. The Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk First Nation, the only Wolastoqey nation in Québec, names Wolastokuk as its ancestral territory and records the loss of the Viger reserve lands in 1869; Listuguj states that Gespe'gewa'gi has been Mi'gmaq traditional territory since time immemorial, and the Mi'gmawei Mawiomi Secretariat says Mi'gma'gi remains unceded.
    Who decides: The Nations' own governments (Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk First Nation; Listuguj, Gesgapegiag and Gespeg through the Mi'gmawei Mawiomi Secretariat)Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk First Nation; Listuguj, About; Mi'gmawei Mawiomi Secretariat, 4 June 2026
What the law rules out
  • An investment fund cannot acquire farm land in Québec without the CPTAQ's authorization, directly or indirectly (Bill 86, new s. 79.0.6).
  • A non-resident cannot acquire farm land of four hectares or more without CPTAQ authorization, and an acquisition made in contravention of s. 79.0.6 is covered by the Act's nullity and penalty rules (Bill 86 explanatory notes and s. 79.0.6 amendments).
Honest gaps
  • The decree under s. 79.0.5 and the holding-cap regulation were not found; whether a decree has replaced the interim Schedule B groups since March 2025 is unknown.
  • The full definition of non-resident in section 1 of the Act respecting the acquisition of farm land by non-residents was not opened (the official consolidation site refused scripted requests); only Bill 86's amendments and explanatory notes were read.
  • The federal prohibition on the purchase of residential property by non-Canadians, and the Civil Code collective vehicles (co-operative, association, trust, emphyteusis), were not verified and are not stated.
  • The MRC land-use plans, the municipal permit rules and the CPTAQ's own pages were not opened, so what a home or a group of homes needs on a given parcel is unknown.
  • No regional farmland price from an official current source was found; the only regional figure (2019) is stale and is not used.
  • Place aux jeunes serves ages 18 to 35, so a family or group arrival is a stated fit limit of that service; no source was opened for a group arrival route or for ARTERRE's results in the region.
  • No Mi'gmaq source opened names the Matapédia valley (La Matapédia MRC), and no Wolastoqiyik page opened states the territory is unceded; the project's convention of treating the territory as unceded is not asserted as a legal finding here.
  • The outcomes of the New Brunswick Wolastoqey and Mi'gmaq title cases are not transferred to Québec.
None is shown.

Context, not adviceOrientation from public sources, not legal advice. Check current law with a local professional before acting. Sources: Bill 86, SQ 2025, c. 5, An Act to ensure the long-term preservation and vitality of agricultural land, ss. 1, 63 (new s. 79.0.6) and explanatory notes (Publications du Québec), Bill 86, SQ 2025, c. 5, explanatory notes and s. 63 (new s. 79.0.6), Bill 86, SQ 2025, c. 5, explanatory notes, Bas-Saint-Laurent, Accueil et intégration; Place aux jeunes en région, ARTERRE, Régions participantes: Bas-Saint-Laurent, Bill 86, new ss. 79.0.6 and 79.0.12; s. 105.5 and Schedule B, Bill 86, new s. 79.0.12, Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk First Nation; Listuguj, About; Mi'gmawei Mawiomi Secretariat, 4 June 2026. Verified 5 October 2026 · confidence in this entry: medium.

Climate and water context

Climate class (Köppen-Geiger)

1961–1990Dfb, Cold, no dry season, warm summerShare of the footprint: Dfb 77.3%, Dfc 22.7%
1991–2020Dfb, Cold, no dry season, warm summerShare of the footprint: Dfb 97.1%, Dfc 2.9%
2041–2070 SSP2-4.5 · projectionDfb, Cold, no dry season, warm summerShare of the footprint: Dfb 99.9%, Dfc 0.1%
2071–2099 SSP2-4.5 · projectionDfb, Cold, no dry season, warm summerShare of the footprint: Dfb 99.3%, Dfa 0.7%

Shares are the fraction of the footprint land area in each class at 1 km; sea and no-data cells are excluded.

Source: Beck et al. 2023, Köppen-Geiger maps at 1 km · CC BY 4.0

Water (WRI Aqueduct classes, as published)

Water stress, baselineLow (<10%)Demand to supply ratio 0.06
Water stress, 2050 business as usual · projectionLow (<10%)Demand to supply ratio 0.079
Drought riskLow (0.0-0.2)
Interannual variabilityLow - Medium (0.25-0.50)
Seasonal variabilityMedium - High (0.66-1.00)
Groundwater table trendInsignificant Trend
Riverine flood riskMedium - High (2 in 1,000 to 6 in 1,000)

WRI Aqueduct 4.0 indicators in WRI's own classes; this project does not combine or rescale them.

Source: WRI Aqueduct 4.0 · CC BY 4.0

Where legal and cost questions come first

These are the questions a community has to be able to answer in a place: who may hold the land, how a group can hold it together, and what it costs. Read them as context for a conversation with the people already there, not as a verdict on the place.

Legal and ownership

Foreign ownership
restricted Non-residents of Québec need CPTAQ authorization to acquire farm land of 4 hectares or more, or shares in a company whose principal asset is farm land where the transfer makes it a non-resident corporation (art. 8 and 10) (Act respecting the acquisition of farm land by non-residents, A-4.1, as amended by SQ 2025, c. 5); Bill 86 also requires it for investment funds and holdings above a regulated cap.
Collective ownership path
Not verified for this region: no source on collective-ownership vehicles was opened
Several households on one holding
not as of right
Residency needed to buy
residency required in some cases
Where building is decided
CPTAQ authorization for any non-agricultural use and for an additional residence or dwelling on a lot with acquired residential rights (Bill 86), plus the MRC land-use plan and the municipal permit
First-claim holders
CPTAQ (authorization gate over non-resident, investment-fund and above-cap acquisitions of farm land)
Key restriction
CPTAQ farm-land regime as tightened by Bill 86 (SQ 2025, c. 5, assented 25 March 2025): authorization is required where the acquirer is an investment fund, where the acquirer will not register a farm operation and the land lies within 1 km of an urbanization perimeter in an MRC of the interim Schedule B groups A to D (in this region Rimouski-Neigette and Rivière-du-Loup), and above a regulated holding cap once regulated; the declaration that the land will be a registered farm operation within a year secures authorization under ground 2 (s. 79.0.12)
Legal direction
tightening Bill 86 grounds 1 and 2 have effect from 5 December 2024; ground 3 (cap) waits for a regulation; the group decree under s. 79.0.5 was not found, so the interim Schedule B groups apply as of the Act's text; the other six MRCs (La Mitis, Kamouraska, Témiscouata, Les Basques, La Matanie, La Matapédia) are in interim group F and outside ground 2 until a decree says otherwise

Source: Publications du Québec, SQ 2025, c. 5 (Bill 86), official text opened 2026-10-04 (opens in a new tab) · medium confidence

Known gaps. Decree under s. 79.0.5 and the holding-cap regulation not retrievable; full s. 1 definition of 'non-resident' in A-4.1 not opened (legisquebec 403/502, CanLII 403; art. 2, 8 and 15.2 read via a Wayback capture of 2025-05-24); the federal non-Canadian residential purchase ban and collective-ownership vehicles (Civil Code) not verified and therefore not stated

Land cost

Price band
price not read
Price trajectory
rising Provincial: +67% from 2019 to 2025 (6,656 to 11,131 CAD per acre, Statistics Canada 32-10-0047-01) and +4.6% from 2024 to 2025; FCC reports Québec +4.8% for 2025. Radio-Canada (2019) reported regional prices had doubled in five years. No regional series after 2019 was found.
Detail
No official, current Bas-Saint-Laurent price per hectare was found. The only regional figure (La Financière agricole du Québec, quoted by Radio-Canada, 16 December 2019: 6,000-6,500 CAD per hectare versus 20,000-22,000 provincially) is stale and is not shipped as a price. Province-wide context, Statistics Canada table 32-10-0047-01 (farm land and buildings, July 1): Québec 6,656 CAD per acre in 2019 and 11,131 in 2025.

Source: Statistics Canada 32-10-0047-01; FCC Farmland Values Report (2025 page); Radio-Canada 16 Dec 2019 citing La Financière agricole du Québec (opens in a new tab) · low confidence

Known gaps. Regional per-hectare price unavailable; FCC publishes provincial figures only; La Financière agricole regional series not located.

Practical fit

Hospital access

Nearest hospital
24.53 km CLSC du Cabano, straight line from the region centre
Hospitals within 50 km
4
Hospitals within 100 km
12
60-minute proxy
within 60 minutes a straight-line proxy, not a road time

Geodesic km from region centroid to nearest OSM hospital, not a 60-minute road-network isochrone. The centroid may fall on a regional hub city (Oaxaca City, Santiago, Bolzano, Taos, Evora) rather than a target rural settlement site, so a low number can reflect centroid placement more than real rural-settlement access. V2 to refine via road-time isochrones.

Demographics

Population trend
growing Statistics Canada July 1 estimates for the eight census divisions: 203,798 (2001), 197,170 (2019), 199,319 (2021), 204,755 (2025): -3.3% over 2001-2019, then +3.8% over 2019-2025; every MRC grew 2021-2025 (+0.9% La Matapédia to +4.9% Rimouski-Neigette). The long-run level is still near 2001.
Median age
aging fast 2021 Census median age by MRC 46.8 (Rivière-du-Loup) to 56.8 (Les Basques), Québec 43.2; 65 and over 27.6% (23.7% in 2016; Québec 20.6%).
Migration
more people arriving than leaving 2023/2024, eight census divisions: births 1,413, deaths 2,445 (natural decrease 1,032); net intraprovincial +747, net interprovincial +44, immigrants 285, net non-permanent residents +1,794. Intraprovincial inflow peaked at +1,602 in 2020/2021; it was slightly negative in 2015/2016 to 2017/2018 (-2, -169, -132).
Rural density
low density 9.0 p/km² by the 2021 census (199,039 on 22,188 km²), about 6.0 outside the cities of Rimouski and Rivière-du-Loup; MRC densities 3.3 (La Matapédia) to 27.7 (Rivière-du-Loup).

Source: Statistics Canada tables 98-10-0002-01, 98-10-0022-01, 17-10-0152-01, 17-10-0153-01 (opens in a new tab) · high confidence

Known gaps. 2026 Census not yet released; 2023/2024 components are the latest published; migration by age not analysed.

Field reality, water and soil

Water source control

Rights regime
Québec: surface water and groundwater are 'part of the common heritage of the Québec nation' (SQ 2009, c. 21, s. 1); withdrawals of 75,000 litres per day or more need ministerial authorization under the Environment Quality Act (s. 31.75), authorizations are transferable (s. 31.84)
Rights holder
state
Single-entity control
low The 2009 Act makes water a collective resource that cannot be appropriated beyond Civil Code art. 913 conditions, and projected 2050 stress is Low to low-medium (area-weighted 0.079). Local control by a single holder was not analysed: no municipal, bottled-water or irrigation withdrawal data for the eight MRCs were opened.
When water is short
Environment Quality Act s. 31.76 (inserted 2009): every authorization decision 'must give priority to satisfying public health, sanitation, civil protection and drinking water supply needs' and must reconcile aquatic-ecosystem needs with agriculture, industry, energy and recreation; s. 31.77 adds the effect on other persons' and municipalities' water-use rights. No regional drought-priority rule was opened

Source: Québec, An Act to affirm the collective nature of water resources (SQ 2009, c. 21); WRI Aqueduct 4.0 (opens in a new tab) · medium confidence

Known gaps. Regulation (RPEP, Q-2, r. 35.2) not opened; well yields and municipal supply sources not researched.

Soil contamination

Known contamination
legacy industrial GTC register records inside the eight MRCs: 345 sites (343 point and 2 surface records) with 382 case files, 3.3% of the 10,506 point records province-wide; 307 file rehabilitations are completed, 23 initiated, 46 not started, 6 not necessary; contaminant text is dominated by petroleum hydrocarbons (429 mentions in the file fields) with PAH 79 mentions; sites by MRC: Rimouski-Neigette 87, Rivière-du-Loup 61, Témiscouata 50, Kamouraska 39, La Mitis 30. The pattern is town fuel and commercial sites, not a single mining or industrial legacy; the register is 'not an exhaustive inventory' and does not capture agricultural-input legacy such as pesticide residues
Contamination register
public register
Due-diligence burden
moderate
Regulatory regime
Québec Environment Quality Act (CQLR c. Q-2) contaminated-land regime, with the MELCCFP 'Répertoire des terrains contaminés' (GTC system) published as open data (CC BY 4.0, updated 2026-10-02); the Act's s. 31.68 list is referenced by the open-data catalogue. The Land Protection and Rehabilitation Policy was not opened

Source: MELCCFP, Répertoire des terrains contaminés (GTC), Données Québec (CC BY 4.0) (opens in a new tab) · medium confidence

Known gaps. Pre-research suggested legacy agriculture; the register shows hydrocarbon sites instead and holds no agricultural-input records, so agricultural legacy is unknown, not absent. Policy text and notice-in-land-register rules not opened.

Climate buffering, state and trajectory

Buffering features (state)

Primary features
altitude forest canopy
Altitude range
0 to about 930 (Global Solar Atlas elevations at 315 sample points; p10-p90 134-484 m)
Buffering strength
moderate
Detail
84% of the footprint was forest of 30% canopy or more in 2000 (Hansen) and the foothill ridges rise to about 930 m. Coastal moderation by the estuary is plausible but was not measured or sourced, so it is not listed as a feature.

Trajectory under warming

Direction
buffering falling Observed state plus trajectory: Hansen forest loss 0.37-0.84% a year in 2001-2012 and 0.51-1.03% a year in 2013-2023 (net -3.4 %/decade); Ouranos gives +2 to 3 °C by 2050 for southern Québec under SSP3-7.0 relative to 1991-2020. Winter warming, freeze-thaw, estuary ice-cover loss and coastal erosion (an expectation from pre-research) were not verified from an opened source and are left out.
Primary vulnerability
Warming of about 3.3 °C from the 1970-2000 baseline (2.0 °C) to 2041-2060 (5.3 °C, SSP2-4.5 ensemble), and a spruce-budworm outbreak mapped here from 2012 (9,436 ha) and 2013 (61,184 ha) alongside canopy loss that rose about 60% after 2013

Source: WorldClim CMIP6 v2.1; Hansen GFC v1.11; MRNF Québec spruce budworm aerial survey; Ouranos (opens in a new tab) · medium confidence

Known gaps. Estuary ice-cover, coastal erosion and winter-warming figures for Bas-Saint-Laurent not sourced; WorldClim baseline period (1970-2000) differs from Ouranos' (1991-2020).